Ojibwe Reserves In Ontario
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The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux are an
Anishinaabe The Anishinaabeg (adjectival: Anishinaabe) are a group of culturally related Indigenous peoples present in the Great Lakes region of Canada and the United States. They include the Ojibwe (including Saulteaux and Oji-Cree), Odawa, Potawatomi, ...
people in what is currently southern Canada, the northern
Midwestern United States The Midwestern United States, also referred to as the Midwest or the American Midwest, is one of four census regions of the United States Census Bureau (also known as "Region 2"). It occupies the northern central part of the United States. I ...
, and Northern Plains. According to the U.S. census, in the United States Ojibwe people are one of the largest tribal populations among Native American peoples. In Canada, they are the second-largest
First Nations First Nations or first peoples may refer to: * Indigenous peoples, for ethnic groups who are the earliest known inhabitants of an area. Indigenous groups *First Nations is commonly used to describe some Indigenous groups including: **First Natio ...
population, surpassed only by the
Cree The Cree ( cr, néhinaw, script=Latn, , etc.; french: link=no, Cri) are a Indigenous peoples of the Americas, North American Indigenous people. They live primarily in Canada, where they form one of the country's largest First Nations in Canada ...
. They are one of the most numerous
Indigenous Peoples Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct ethnic groups whose members are directly descended from the earliest known inhabitants of a particular geographic region and, to some extent, maintain the language and culture of those original people ...
north of the
Rio Grande The Rio Grande ( and ), known in Mexico as the Río Bravo del Norte or simply the Río Bravo, is one of the principal rivers (along with the Colorado River) in the southwestern United States and in northern Mexico. The length of the Rio G ...
. The Ojibwe population is approximately 320,000 people, with 170,742 living in the United States , and approximately 160,000 living in Canada. In the United States, there are 77,940 mainline Ojibwe; 76,760 Saulteaux; and 8,770 Mississauga, organized in 125 bands. In Canada, they live from western
Quebec Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirtee ...
to eastern
British Columbia British Columbia (commonly abbreviated as BC) is the westernmost province of Canada, situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, ...
. The Ojibwe language is
Anishinaabemowin Ojibwe , also known as Ojibwa , Ojibway, Otchipwe,R. R. Bishop Baraga, 1878''A Theoretical and Practical Grammar of the Otchipwe Language''/ref> Ojibwemowin, or Anishinaabemowin, is an Indigenous languages of the Americas, indigenous language o ...
, a branch of the
Algonquian language family The Algonquian languages ( or ; also Algonkian) are a subfamily of indigenous American languages that include most languages in the Algic language family. The name of the Algonquian language family is distinguished from the orthographically simi ...
. They are part of the
Council of Three Fires The Council of Three Fires (in oj, label=Anishinaabe, Niswi-mishkodewinan, also known as the People of the Three Fires; the Three Fires Confederacy; or the United Nations of Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi Indians) is a long-standing Anishina ...
(which also include the
Odawa The Odawa (also Ottawa or Odaawaa ), said to mean "traders", are an Indigenous American ethnic group who primarily inhabit land in the Eastern Woodlands region, commonly known as the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. They ha ...
and
Potawatomi The Potawatomi , also spelled Pottawatomi and Pottawatomie (among many variations), are a Native American people of the western Great Lakes region, upper Mississippi River and Great Plains. They traditionally speak the Potawatomi language, a m ...
) and of the larger Anishinaabeg, which also include
Algonquin Algonquin or Algonquian—and the variation Algonki(a)n—may refer to: Languages and peoples *Algonquian languages, a large subfamily of Native American languages in a wide swath of eastern North America from Canada to Virginia **Algonquin la ...
, Nipissing, and
Oji-Cree The Oji-Cree are a First Nation in the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Manitoba, residing in a narrow band extending from the Missinaibi River region in Northeastern Ontario at the east to Lake Winnipeg at the west. The Oji-Cree people are des ...
people. Historically, through the
Saulteaux The Saulteaux (pronounced , or in imitation of the French pronunciation , also written Salteaux, Saulteau and other variants), otherwise known as the Plains Ojibwe, are a First Nations band government in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Al ...
branch, they were a part of the
Iron Confederacy The Iron Confederacy or Iron Confederation (also known as Cree-Assiniboine in English or cr, script=Latn, Nehiyaw-Pwat, label=none in Cree) was a political and military alliance of Plains Indians of what is now Western Canada and the northern Uni ...
with the Cree,
Assiniboine The Assiniboine or Assiniboin people ( when singular, Assiniboines / Assiniboins when plural; Ojibwe: ''Asiniibwaan'', "stone Sioux"; also in plural Assiniboine or Assiniboin), also known as the Hohe and known by the endonym Nakota (or Nakoda ...
, and
Metis Metis or Métis may refer to: Ethnic groups * Métis, recognized Indigenous communities in Canada and America whose distinct culture and language emerged after early intermarriage between First Nations peoples and early European settlers, prima ...
. The Ojibwe are known for their
birchbark Birch bark or birchbark is the bark of several Eurasian and North American birch trees of the genus ''Betula''. The strong and water-resistant cardboard-like bark can be easily cut, bent, and sewn, which has made it a valuable building, craftin ...
canoe A canoe is a lightweight narrow water vessel, typically pointed at both ends and open on top, propelled by one or more seated or kneeling paddlers facing the direction of travel and using a single-bladed paddle. In British English, the term ...
s, birchbark scrolls, mining and trade in
copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...
, as well as their cultivation of
wild rice Wild rice, also called manoomin, Canada rice, Indian rice, or water oats, is any of four species of grasses that form the genus ''Zizania'', and the grain that can be harvested from them. The grain was historically gathered and eaten in both ...
and
maple syrup Maple syrup is a syrup made from the sap of maple trees. In cold climates, these trees store starch in their trunks and roots before winter; the starch is then converted to sugar that rises in the sap in late winter and early spring. Maple tree ...
. Their
Midewiwin The Midewiwin (in syllabics: , also spelled ''Midewin'' and ''Medewiwin'') or the Grand Medicine Society is a secretive religion of some of the indigenous peoples of the Maritimes, New England and Great Lakes regions in North America. Its prac ...
Society is well respected as the keeper of detailed and complex scrolls of events, oral history, songs, maps, memories, stories, geometry, and mathematics. European powers, Canada, and the United States have colonized Ojibwe lands. The Ojibwe signed treaties with settler leaders to surrender land for settlement in exchange for compensation, land reserves and guarantees of traditional rights. Many European settlers moved into the Ojibwe ancestral lands.


Etymology

The
exonym An endonym (from Greek: , 'inner' + , 'name'; also known as autonym) is a common, ''native'' name for a geographical place, group of people, individual person, language or dialect, meaning that it is used inside that particular place, group, ...
for this Anishinaabe group is ''Ojibwe'' (plural: ''Ojibweg''). This name is commonly anglicized as "Ojibwa" or "Ojibway". The name "Chippewa" is an alternative anglicization. Although many variations exist in the literature, "Chippewa" is more common in the United States, and "Ojibway" predominates in Canada, but both terms are used in each country. In many Ojibwe communities throughout Canada and the U.S. since the late 20th century, more members have been using the generalized name ''Anishinaabe(-g)''. The meaning of the name ''Ojibwe'' is not known; the most common explanations for the name derivations are: * ''ojiibwabwe'' (/o/ + /jiibw/ + /abwe/), meaning "those who cook/roast until it puckers", referring to their fire-curing of
moccasin A moccasin is a shoe, made of deerskin or other soft leather, consisting of a sole (made with leather that has not been "worked") and sides made of one piece of leather, stitched together at the top, and sometimes with a vamp (additional panel o ...
seams to make them waterproof. Some 19th century sources say this name described a method of ritual torture that the Ojibwe applied to enemies. * ''ozhibii'iwe'' (/o/ + /zhibii'/ + /iwe/), meaning "those who keep records
f a Vision F, or f, is the sixth Letter (alphabet), letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the English alphabet, modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is English alphabet#Let ...
, referring to their form of pictorial writing, and
pictograph A pictogram, also called a pictogramme, pictograph, or simply picto, and in computer usage an icon, is a graphic symbol that conveys its meaning through its pictorial resemblance to a physical object. Pictographs are often used in writing and gr ...
s used in Midewiwin sacred rites; or * ''ojiibwe'' (/o/ + /jiib/ + /we/), meaning "those who speak stiffly" or "those who stammer", an exonym or name given to them by the Cree, who described the Ojibwe language for its differences from their own. Because many Ojibwe were formerly located around the outlet of
Lake Superior Lake Superior in central North America is the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface areaThe Caspian Sea is the largest lake, but is saline, not freshwater. and the third-largest by volume, holding 10% of the world's surface fresh wa ...
, which the French colonists called Sault Ste. Marie for its rapids, the early Canadian settlers referred to the Ojibwe as ''Saulteurs''. Ojibwe who subsequently moved to the prairie provinces of Canada have retained the name Saulteaux. This is disputed since some scholars believe that only the name migrated west. Ojibwe who were originally located along the
Mississagi River The Mississagi River is a river in Algoma District, Algoma and Sudbury District, Sudbury Districts, Ontario, Canada, that originates in Sudbury District and flows to Lake Huron at Blind River, Ontario, Blind River, Algoma District. Etymology Th ...
and made their way to
southern Ontario Southern Ontario is a primary region of the province of Ontario, Canada, the other primary region being Northern Ontario. It is the most densely populated and southernmost region in Canada. The exact northern boundary of Southern Ontario is disp ...
are known as the
Mississaugas The Mississauga are a subtribe of the Anishinaabe-speaking First Nations peoples located in southern Ontario, Canada. They are closely related to the Ojibwe. The name "Mississauga" comes from the Anishinaabe word ''Misi-zaagiing'', meaning "hose ...
.


Language

The Ojibwe language is known as ''Anishinaabemowin'' or ''Ojibwemowin'', and is still widely spoken, although the number of fluent speakers has declined sharply. Today, most of the language's fluent speakers are elders. Since the early 21st century, there is a growing movement to revitalize the language and restore its strength as a central part of Ojibwe culture. The language belongs to the Algonquian linguistic group and is descended from
Proto-Algonquian Proto-Algonquian (commonly abbreviated PA) is the proto-language from which the various Algonquian languages are descended. It is generally estimated to have been spoken around 2,500 to 3,000 years ago, but there is less agreement on where it was ...
. Its sister languages include
Blackfoot The Blackfoot Confederacy, ''Niitsitapi'' or ''Siksikaitsitapi'' (ᖹᐟᒧᐧᒣᑯ, meaning "the people" or " Blackfoot-speaking real people"), is a historic collective name for linguistically related groups that make up the Blackfoot or Bla ...
,
Cheyenne The Cheyenne ( ) are an Indigenous people of the Great Plains. Their Cheyenne language belongs to the Algonquian language family. Today, the Cheyenne people are split into two federally recognized nations: the Southern Cheyenne, who are enroll ...
,
Cree The Cree ( cr, néhinaw, script=Latn, , etc.; french: link=no, Cri) are a Indigenous peoples of the Americas, North American Indigenous people. They live primarily in Canada, where they form one of the country's largest First Nations in Canada ...
,
Fox Foxes are small to medium-sized, omnivorous mammals belonging to several genera of the family Canidae. They have a flattened skull, upright, triangular ears, a pointed, slightly upturned snout, and a long bushy tail (or ''brush''). Twelve sp ...
,
Menominee The Menominee (; mez, omǣqnomenēwak meaning ''"Menominee People"'', also spelled Menomini, derived from the Ojibwe language word for "Wild Rice People"; known as ''Mamaceqtaw'', "the people", in the Menominee language) are a federally recog ...
,
Potawatomi The Potawatomi , also spelled Pottawatomi and Pottawatomie (among many variations), are a Native American people of the western Great Lakes region, upper Mississippi River and Great Plains. They traditionally speak the Potawatomi language, a m ...
, and
Shawnee The Shawnee are an Algonquian-speaking indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands. In the 17th century they lived in Pennsylvania, and in the 18th century they were in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, with some bands in Kentucky a ...
among the northern Plains tribes. ''Anishinaabemowin'' is frequently referred to as a "Central Algonquian" language; Central Algonquian is an area grouping, however, rather than a linguistic genetic one. ''Ojibwemowin'' is the fourth-most spoken Native language in North America after
Navajo The Navajo (; British English: Navaho; nv, Diné or ') are a Native American people of the Southwestern United States. With more than 399,494 enrolled tribal members , the Navajo Nation is the largest federally recognized tribe in the United ...
, Cree, and
Inuktitut Inuktitut (; , syllabics ; from , "person" + , "like", "in the manner of"), also Eastern Canadian Inuktitut, is one of the principal Inuit languages of Canada. It is spoken in all areas north of the tree line, including parts of the provinces o ...
. Many decades of
fur trading The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of a world fur market in the early modern period, furs of boreal, polar and cold temperate mammalian animals have been the most ...
with the French established the language as one of the key trade languages of the
Great Lakes The Great Lakes, also called the Great Lakes of North America, are a series of large interconnected freshwater lakes in the mid-east region of North America that connect to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence River. There are five lakes ...
and the northern
Great Plains The Great Plains (french: Grandes Plaines), sometimes simply "the Plains", is a broad expanse of flatland in North America. It is located west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains, much of it covered in prairie, steppe, an ...
. The popularity of the
epic poem An epic poem, or simply an epic, is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. ...
''
The Song of Hiawatha ''The Song of Hiawatha'' is an 1855 epic poem in trochaic tetrameter by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow which features Native American characters. The epic relates the fictional adventures of an Ojibwe warrior named Hiawatha and the tragedy of his l ...
'', written by
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (February 27, 1807 – March 24, 1882) was an American poet and educator. His original works include "Paul Revere's Ride", ''The Song of Hiawatha'', and ''Evangeline''. He was the first American to completely transl ...
in 1855, publicized the Ojibwe culture. The epic contains many
toponym Toponymy, toponymics, or toponomastics is the study of '' toponyms'' (proper names of places, also known as place names and geographic names), including their origins, meanings, usage and types. Toponym is the general term for a proper name of ...
s that originate from Ojibwe words.


History


Precontact and spiritual beliefs

According to Ojibwe
oral history Oral history is the collection and study of historical information about individuals, families, important events, or everyday life using audiotapes, videotapes, or transcriptions of planned interviews. These interviews are conducted with people wh ...
and from recordings in birch bark scrolls, the Ojibwe originated from the mouth of the
Saint Lawrence River The St. Lawrence River (french: Fleuve Saint-Laurent, ) is a large river in the middle latitudes of North America. Its headwaters begin flowing from Lake Ontario in a (roughly) northeasterly direction, into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, connectin ...
on the Atlantic coast of what is now
Quebec Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirtee ...
. They traded widely across the continent for thousands of years as they migrated, and knew of the canoe routes to move north, west to east, and then south in the Americas. The identification of the Ojibwe as a culture or people may have occurred in response to contact with Europeans. The Europeans preferred to deal with groups, and tried to identify those they encountered. According to Ojibwe oral history, seven great ''miigis'' (Cowrie shells) appeared to them in the ''Waabanakiing'' (Land of the Dawn, i.e., Eastern Land) to teach them the ''mide'' way of life. One of the ''miigis'' was too spiritually powerful and killed the people in the ''Waabanakiing'' when they were in its presence. The six others remained to teach, while the one returned into the ocean. The six established ''doodem'' (clans) for people in the east, symbolized by animals. The five original Anishinaabe ''doodem'' were the ''Wawaazisii'' ( Bullhead), ''Baswenaazhi'' (Echo-maker, i.e., Crane), ''Aan'aawenh'' ( Pintail Duck), ''Nooke'' (Tender, i.e.,
Bear Bears are carnivoran mammals of the family Ursidae. They are classified as caniforms, or doglike carnivorans. Although only eight species of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of habitats throughout the Nor ...
) and ''Moozoonsii'' (Little
Moose The moose (in North America) or elk (in Eurasia) (''Alces alces'') is a member of the New World deer subfamily and is the only species in the genus ''Alces''. It is the largest and heaviest extant species in the deer family. Most adult mal ...
). The six ''miigis'' then returned to the ocean as well. If the seventh had stayed, it would have established the
Thunderbird Thunderbird, thunder bird or thunderbirds may refer to: * Thunderbird (mythology), a legendary creature in certain North American indigenous peoples' history and culture * Ford Thunderbird, a car Birds * Dromornithidae, extinct flightless birds ...
''doodem''. At a later time, one of these ''miigis'' appeared in a vision to relate a prophecy. It said that if the Anishinaabeg did not move farther west, they would not be able to keep their traditional ways alive because of the many new pale-skinned settlers who would arrive soon in the east. Their migration path would be symbolized by a series of smaller Turtle Islands, which was confirmed with ''miigis'' shells (i.e.,
cowry Cowrie or cowry () is the common name for a group of small to large sea snails, ocean, marine Gastropoda, gastropod Mollusca, mollusks in the family Cypraeidae, the cowries. The term ''porcelain'' derives from the old Italian language, Italia ...
shells). After receiving assurance from their "Allied Brothers" (i.e.,
Mi'kmaq The Mi'kmaq (also ''Mi'gmaq'', ''Lnu'', ''Miꞌkmaw'' or ''Miꞌgmaw''; ; ) are a First Nations people of the Northeastern Woodlands, indigenous to the areas of Canada's Atlantic Provinces and the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec as well as the northe ...
) and "Father" (i.e.,
Abenaki The Abenaki (Abenaki: ''Wαpánahki'') are an Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands of Canada and the United States. They are an Algonquian-speaking people and part of the Wabanaki Confederacy. The Eastern Abenaki language was predom ...
) of their safety to move inland, the Anishinaabeg gradually migrated west along the Saint Lawrence River to the
Ottawa River The Ottawa River (french: Rivière des Outaouais, Algonquin: ''Kichi-Sìbì/Kitchissippi'') is a river in the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec. It is named after the Algonquin word 'to trade', as it was the major trade route of Eastern ...
to
Lake Nipissing Lake Nipissing (; french: lac Nipissing, oj, Gichi-nibiinsing-zaaga’igan) is a lake in the Canadian province Within the geographical areas of Canada, the ten provinces and three territories are sub-national administrative divisions under ...
, and then to the Great Lakes. The first of the smaller Turtle Islands was ''Mooniyaa'', where ''Mooniyaang'' (present-day
Montreal Montreal ( ; officially Montréal, ) is the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, second-most populous city in Canada and List of towns in Quebec, most populous city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian ...
) developed. The "second stopping place" was in the vicinity of the ''Wayaanag-gakaabikaa'' (Concave Waterfalls, i.e.,
Niagara Falls Niagara Falls () is a group of three waterfalls at the southern end of Niagara Gorge, spanning the border between the province of Ontario in Canada and the state of New York in the United States. The largest of the three is Horseshoe Falls, ...
). At their "third stopping place", near the present-day city of
Detroit, Michigan Detroit ( , ; , ) is the largest city in the U.S. state of Michigan. It is also the largest U.S. city on the United States–Canada border, and the seat of government of Wayne County. The City of Detroit had a population of 639,111 at ...
, the Anishinaabeg divided into six groups, of which the Ojibwe was one. The first significant new Ojibwe culture-center was their "fourth stopping place" on ''Manidoo Minising'' (
Manitoulin Island Manitoulin Island is an island in Lake Huron, located within the borders of the Canadian province of Ontario, in the bioregion known as Laurentia. With an area of , it is the largest lake island in the world, large enough that it has over 100 ...
). Their first new political-center was referred to as their "fifth stopping place", in their present country at ''Baawiting'' (Sault Ste. Marie). Continuing their westward expansion, the Ojibwe divided into the "northern branch", following the north shore of Lake Superior, and the "southern branch", along its south shore. As the people continued to migrate westward, the "northern branch" divided into a "westerly group" and a "southerly group". The "southern branch" and the "southerly group" of the "northern branch" came together at their "sixth stopping place" on Spirit Island () located in the Saint Louis River estuary at the western end of Lake Superior. (This has since been developed as the present-day
Duluth , settlement_type = City , nicknames = Twin Ports (with Superior), Zenith City , motto = , image_skyline = , image_caption = Clockwise from top: urban Duluth skyline; Minnesota ...
/ Superior cities.) The people were directed in a vision by the ''miigis'' being to go to the "place where there is food (i.e.,
wild rice Wild rice, also called manoomin, Canada rice, Indian rice, or water oats, is any of four species of grasses that form the genus ''Zizania'', and the grain that can be harvested from them. The grain was historically gathered and eaten in both ...
) upon the waters." Their second major settlement, referred to as their "seventh stopping place", was at Shaugawaumikong (or ''Zhaagawaamikong'', French, '' Chequamegon'') on the southern shore of Lake Superior, near the present
La Pointe, Wisconsin La Pointe is an unincorporated community in the town of La Pointe, Ashland County, Wisconsin, United States. It is on the western shore of Madeline Island, the largest of the Apostle Islands. Downtown La Pointe is adjacent to the Madeline I ...
. The "westerly group" of the "northern branch" migrated along the Rainy River,
Red River of the North The Red River (french: rivière Rouge or ) is a river in the north-central United States and central Canada. Originating at the confluence of the Bois de Sioux and Otter Tail rivers between the U.S. states of Minnesota and North Dakota, it fl ...
, and across the northern Great Plains until reaching the
Pacific Northwest The Pacific Northwest (sometimes Cascadia, or simply abbreviated as PNW) is a geographic region in western North America bounded by its coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains to the east. Though ...
. Along their migration to the west, they came across many ''miigis'', or cowry shells, as told in the prophecy.


Contact with Europeans

The first historical mention of the Ojibwe occurs in the French ''
Jesuit Relation ''The Jesuit Relations'', also known as ''Relations des Jésuites de la Nouvelle-France'', are chronicles of the Jesuit missions in New France. The works were written annually and printed beginning in 1632 and ending in 1673. Originally written ...
'' of 1640, a report by the missionary priests to their superiors in France. Through their friendship with the French traders (''
coureurs des bois A coureur des bois (; ) or coureur de bois (; plural: coureurs de(s) bois) was an independent entrepreneurial French-Canadian trader who travelled in New France and the interior of North America, usually to trade with First Nations peoples by e ...
'' and
voyageurs The voyageurs (; ) were 18th and 19th century French Canadians who engaged in the transporting of furs via canoe during the peak of the North American fur trade. The emblematic meaning of the term applies to places (New France, including the ' ...
), the Ojibwe gained guns, began to use European goods, and began to dominate their traditional enemies, the
Lakota Lakota may refer to: *Lakota people, a confederation of seven related Native American tribes *Lakota language, the language of the Lakota peoples Place names In the United States: *Lakota, Iowa *Lakota, North Dakota, seat of Nelson County *Lakota ...
and
Fox Foxes are small to medium-sized, omnivorous mammals belonging to several genera of the family Canidae. They have a flattened skull, upright, triangular ears, a pointed, slightly upturned snout, and a long bushy tail (or ''brush''). Twelve sp ...
to their west and south. They drove the Sioux from the Upper
Mississippi Mississippi () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States, bordered to the north by Tennessee; to the east by Alabama; to the south by the Gulf of Mexico; to the southwest by Louisiana; and to the northwest by Arkansas. Miss ...
region to the area of the present-day Dakotas, and forced the Fox down from northern
Wisconsin Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake M ...
. The latter allied with the Sauk for protection. By the end of the 18th century, the Ojibwe controlled nearly all of present-day Michigan, northern Wisconsin, and Minnesota, including most of the Red River area. They also controlled the entire northern shores of lakes
Huron Huron may refer to: People * Wyandot people (or Wendat), indigenous to North America * Wyandot language, spoken by them * Huron-Wendat Nation, a Huron-Wendat First Nation with a community in Wendake, Quebec * Nottawaseppi Huron Band of Potawatomi ...
and Superior on the Canadian side and extending westward to the Turtle Mountains of
North Dakota North Dakota () is a U.S. state in the Upper Midwest, named after the Native Americans in the United States, indigenous Dakota people, Dakota Sioux. North Dakota is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba to the north a ...
. In the latter area, the French Canadians called them Ojibwe or ''Saulteaux''. The Ojibwe were part of a long-term alliance with the Anishinaabe
Odawa The Odawa (also Ottawa or Odaawaa ), said to mean "traders", are an Indigenous American ethnic group who primarily inhabit land in the Eastern Woodlands region, commonly known as the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. They ha ...
and
Potawatomi The Potawatomi , also spelled Pottawatomi and Pottawatomie (among many variations), are a Native American people of the western Great Lakes region, upper Mississippi River and Great Plains. They traditionally speak the Potawatomi language, a m ...
peoples, called the
Council of Three Fires The Council of Three Fires (in oj, label=Anishinaabe, Niswi-mishkodewinan, also known as the People of the Three Fires; the Three Fires Confederacy; or the United Nations of Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi Indians) is a long-standing Anishina ...
. They fought against the
Iroquois Confederacy The Iroquois ( or ), officially the Haudenosaunee ( meaning "people of the longhouse"), are an Iroquoian-speaking confederacy of First Nations peoples in northeast North America/ Turtle Island. They were known during the colonial years to ...
, based mainly to the southeast of the Great Lakes in present-day
New York New York most commonly refers to: * New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York * New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States New York may also refer to: Film and television * '' ...
, and the Sioux to the west. The Ojibwa stopped the Iroquois advance into their territory near Lake Superior in 1662. Then they formed an alliance with other tribes such as the
Huron Huron may refer to: People * Wyandot people (or Wendat), indigenous to North America * Wyandot language, spoken by them * Huron-Wendat Nation, a Huron-Wendat First Nation with a community in Wendake, Quebec * Nottawaseppi Huron Band of Potawatomi ...
and the Odawa who had been displaced by the Iroquois invasion. Together they launched a massive counterattack against the Iroquois and drove them out of Michigan and southern Ontario until they were forced to flee back to their original homeland in upstate New York. At the same time the Iroquois were subjected to attacks by the French. This was the beginning of the end of the Iroquois Confederacy as they were put on the defensive. The Ojibwe expanded eastward, taking over the lands along the eastern shores of Lake Huron and
Georgian Bay Georgian Bay (french: Baie Georgienne) is a large bay of Lake Huron, in the Laurentia bioregion. It is located entirely within the borders of Ontario, Canada. The main body of the bay lies east of the Bruce Peninsula and Manitoulin Island. To ...
. In 1745, they adopted guns from the British in order to repel the
Dakota people The Dakota (pronounced , Dakota language: ''Dakȟóta/Dakhóta'') are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government in North America. They compose two of the three main subcultures of the Sioux people, and are typically divided into ...
in the Lake Superior area, pushing them to the south and west. In the 1680s the Ojibwa defeated the
Iroquois The Iroquois ( or ), officially the Haudenosaunee ( meaning "people of the longhouse"), are an Iroquoian-speaking confederacy of First Nations peoples in northeast North America/ Turtle Island. They were known during the colonial years to ...
who dispersed their Huron allies and trading partners. This victory allowed them a "
golden age The term Golden Age comes from Greek mythology, particularly the ''Works and Days'' of Hesiod, and is part of the description of temporal decline of the state of peoples through five Ages of Man, Ages, Gold being the first and the one during ...
" in which they ruled uncontested in southern Ontario. Often, treaties known as "peace and friendship treaties" were made to establish community bonds between the Ojibwe and the European settlers. These established the groundwork for cooperative resource-sharing between the Ojibwe and the settlers. The United States and Canada viewed later treaties offering land cessions as offering territorial advantages. The Ojibwe did not understand the land cession terms in the same way because of the cultural differences in understanding the uses of land. The governments of the U.S. and Canada considered land a commodity of value that could be freely bought, owned and sold. The Ojibwe believed it was a fully shared resource, along with air, water and sunlight—despite having an understanding of "territory". At the time of the treaty councils, they could not conceive of separate land sales or exclusive ownership of land. Consequently, today, in both Canada and the U.S., legal arguments in treaty-rights and treaty interpretations often bring to light the differences in cultural understanding of treaty terms to come to legal understanding of the treaty obligations. In part because of its long trading alliance, the Ojibwe allied with the French against Great Britain and its colonists in the
Seven Years' War The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a global conflict that involved most of the European Great Powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. Other concurrent conflicts include the French and Indian War (1754 ...
(also called the
French and Indian War The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was a theater of the Seven Years' War, which pitted the North American colonies of the British Empire against those of the French, each side being supported by various Native American tribes. At the ...
). After losing the war in 1763, France was forced to cede its colonial claims to lands in Canada and east of the Mississippi River to Britain. After
Pontiac's War Pontiac's War (also known as Pontiac's Conspiracy or Pontiac's Rebellion) was launched in 1763 by a loose confederation of Native Americans dissatisfied with British rule in the Great Lakes region following the French and Indian War (1754–176 ...
and adjusting to British colonial rule, the Ojibwe allied with British forces and against the United States in the
War of 1812 The War of 1812 (18 June 1812 – 17 February 1815) was fought by the United States of America and its indigenous allies against the United Kingdom and its allies in British North America, with limited participation by Spain in Florida. It bega ...
. They had hoped that a British victory could protect them against United States settlers' encroachment on their territory. Following the war, the United States government tried to forcibly remove all the Ojibwe to
Minnesota Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over to ...
, west of the Mississippi River. The Ojibwe resisted, and there were violent confrontations. In the
Sandy Lake Tragedy The Sandy Lake Tragedy was the culmination in 1850 of a series of events centered in Big Sandy Lake, Minnesota that resulted in the deaths of several hundred Lake Superior Chippewa. Officials of the Zachary Taylor Administration and Minnesota T ...
, several hundred Ojibwe died because of the federal government's failure to deliver fall annuity payments.James A. Clifton, "Wisconsin Death March: Explaining the Extremes in Old Northwest Indian Removal"
in ''Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters'', 1987, 5:1–40, accessed 2 March 2010
The government attempted to do this in the
Keweenaw Peninsula The Keweenaw Peninsula ( , sometimes locally ) is the northernmost part of Michigan's Upper Peninsula. It projects into Lake Superior and was the site of the first copper boom in the United States, leading to its moniker of "Copper Country." As o ...
in the
Upper Peninsula of Michigan The Upper Peninsula of Michigan – also known as Upper Michigan or colloquially the U.P. – is the northern and more elevated of the two major landmasses that make up the U.S. state of Michigan; it is separated from the Lower Peninsula by t ...
. Through the efforts of Chief Buffalo and the rise of popular opinion in the U.S. against Ojibwe removal, the bands east of the Mississippi were allowed to return to reservations on ceded territory. A few families were removed to
Kansas Kansas () is a state in the Midwestern United States. Its capital is Topeka, and its largest city is Wichita. Kansas is a landlocked state bordered by Nebraska to the north; Missouri to the east; Oklahoma to the south; and Colorado to the ...
as part of the Potawatomi removal. In British North America, the
Royal Proclamation of 1763 The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was issued by King George III on 7 October 1763. It followed the Treaty of Paris (1763), which formally ended the Seven Years' War and transferred French territory in North America to Great Britain. The Procla ...
following the Seven Years' War governed the cession of land by treaty or purchase . Subsequently, France ceded most of the land in
Upper Canada The Province of Upper Canada (french: link=no, province du Haut-Canada) was a part of British Canada established in 1791 by the Kingdom of Great Britain, to govern the central third of the lands in British North America, formerly part of the ...
to Great Britain. Even with the
Jay Treaty The Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, Between His Britannic Majesty and the United States of America, commonly known as the Jay Treaty, and also as Jay's Treaty, was a 1794 treaty between the United States and Great Britain that averted ...
signed between Great Britain and the United States following the
American Revolutionary War The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was a major war of the American Revolution. Widely considered as the war that secured the independence of t ...
, the newly formed United States did not fully uphold the treaty. As it was still preoccupied by war with France, Great Britain ceded to the United States much of the lands in
Ohio Ohio () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States. Of the fifty U.S. states, it is the 34th-largest by area, and with a population of nearly 11.8 million, is the seventh-most populous and tenth-most densely populated. The sta ...
,
Indiana Indiana () is a U.S. state in the Midwestern United States. It is the 38th-largest by area and the 17th-most populous of the 50 States. Its capital and largest city is Indianapolis. Indiana was admitted to the United States as the 19th s ...
, Michigan, parts of
Illinois Illinois ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. Its largest metropolitan areas include the Chicago metropolitan area, and the Metro East section, of Greater St. Louis. Other smaller metropolita ...
and Wisconsin, and northern Minnesota and North Dakota to settle the boundary of their holdings in Canada. In 1807, the Ojibwe joined three other tribes, the Odawa, Potawatomi and Wyandot people, in signing the
Treaty of Detroit The Treaty of Detroit was a treaty between the United States and the Ottawa, Chippewa, Wyandot and Potawatomi Native American nations. The treaty was signed in Detroit, Michigan on November 17, 1807, with William Hull, governor of the Michi ...
. The agreement, between the tribes and
William Hull William Hull (June 24, 1753 – November 29, 1825) was an American soldier and politician. He fought in the American Revolutionary War and was appointed as Governor of Michigan Territory (1805–13), gaining large land cessions from several Am ...
, representing the
Michigan Territory The Territory of Michigan was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from June 30, 1805, until January 26, 1837, when the final extent of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Michigan. Detroit w ...
, gave the United States a portion of today's
Southeastern Michigan Southeast Michigan, also called southeastern Michigan, is a region in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan that is home to a majority of the state's businesses and industries as well as slightly over half of the state's population, most of whom are c ...
and a section of Ohio near the
Maumee River The Maumee River (pronounced ) ( sjw, Hotaawathiipi; mia, Taawaawa siipiiwi) is a river running in the United States Midwest from northeastern Indiana into northwestern Ohio and Lake Erie. It is formed at the confluence of the St. Joseph and ...
. The tribes were able to retain small pockets of land in the territory. The Battle of the Brule was an October 1842 battle between the La Pointe Band of Ojibwe Indians and a war party of
Dakota Dakota may refer to: * Dakota people, a sub-tribe of the Sioux ** Dakota language, their language Dakota may also refer to: Places United States * Dakota, Georgia, an unincorporated community * Dakota, Illinois, a town * Dakota, Minnesota, ...
Indians. The battle took place along the
Brule River The Brule River is a U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline dataThe National Map, accessed December 19, 2011 river in the U.S. states of Michigan and Wisconsin. Nearly the entire course forms a portion of t ...
(Bois Brûlé) in what is today northern Wisconsin and resulted in a decisive victory for the Ojibwe. In Canada, many of the land cession treaties the British made with the Ojibwe provided for their rights for continued hunting, fishing and gathering of natural resources after land sales. The government signed numbered treaties in northwestern Ontario,
Manitoba Manitoba ( ) is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada at the Centre of Canada, longitudinal centre of the country. It is Canada's Population of Canada by province and territory, fifth-most populous province, with a population o ...
,
Saskatchewan Saskatchewan ( ; ) is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province in Western Canada, western Canada, bordered on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, to the northeast by Nunavut, and on t ...
, and
Alberta Alberta ( ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is part of Western Canada and is one of the three prairie provinces. Alberta is bordered by British Columbia to the west, Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Ter ...
.
British Columbia British Columbia (commonly abbreviated as BC) is the westernmost province of Canada, situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, ...
had not signed treaties until the late 20th century, and most areas have no treaties yet. The government and First Nations are continuing to negotiate treaty land entitlements and settlements. The treaties are constantly being reinterpreted by the courts because many of them are vague and difficult to apply in modern times. The numbered treaties were some of the most detailed treaties signed for their time. The Ojibwe Nation set the agenda and negotiated the first numbered treaties before they would allow safe passage of many more British settlers to the prairies. Ojibwe communities have a strong history of political and social activism. Long before contact, they were closely aligned with Odawa and Potawatomi people in the Council of the Three Fires. From the 1870s to 1938, the Grand General Indian Council of Ontario attempted to reconcile multiple traditional models into one cohesive voice to exercise political influence over colonial legislation. In the West, 16 Plains Cree and Ojibwe bands formed the Allied Bands of Qu'Appelle in 1910 in order to redress concerns about the failure of the government to uphold Treaty 4's promises.


Culture

The Ojibwe have traditionally organized themselves into groups known as ''bands''. Most Ojibwe, except for the Great Plains bands, have historically lived a settled (as opposed to nomadic) lifestyle, relying on fishing and hunting to supplement the cultivation of numerous varieties of
maize Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. Th ...
and
squash Squash may refer to: Sports * Squash (sport), the high-speed racquet sport also known as squash racquets * Squash (professional wrestling), an extremely one-sided match in professional wrestling * Squash tennis, a game similar to squash but pla ...
, and the harvesting of ''
manoomin Wild rice, also called manoomin, Canada rice, Indian rice, or water oats, is any of four species of grasses that form the genus ''Zizania'', and the grain that can be harvested from them. The grain was historically gathered and eaten in both ...
'' (wild rice) for food. Historically their typical dwelling has been the ''wiigiwaam'' (
wigwam A wigwam, wickiup, wetu (Wampanoag), or wiigiwaam (Ojibwe, in syllabics: ) is a semi-permanent domed dwelling formerly used by certain Native American tribes and First Nations people and still used for ceremonial events. The term ''wickiup'' ...
), built either as a ''waginogaan'' (domed-lodge) or as a ''nasawa'ogaan'' (pointed-lodge), made of birch bark,
juniper Junipers are coniferous trees and shrubs in the genus ''Juniperus'' () of the cypress family Cupressaceae. Depending on the taxonomy, between 50 and 67 species of junipers are widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere, from the Arcti ...
bark and
willow Willows, also called sallows and osiers, from the genus ''Salix'', comprise around 400 speciesMabberley, D.J. 1997. The Plant Book, Cambridge University Press #2: Cambridge. of typically deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist s ...
saplings. In the contemporary era, most of the people live in modern housing, but traditional structures are still used for special sites and events. They have a culturally-specific form of pictorial writing, used in the religious rites of the ''
Midewiwin The Midewiwin (in syllabics: , also spelled ''Midewin'' and ''Medewiwin'') or the Grand Medicine Society is a secretive religion of some of the indigenous peoples of the Maritimes, New England and Great Lakes regions in North America. Its prac ...
'' and recorded on birch bark scrolls and possibly on rock. The many complex pictures on the sacred scrolls communicate much historical, geometrical, and mathematical knowledge. The use of
petroforms Petroforms, also known as boulder outlines or boulder mosaics, are human-made shapes and patterns made by lining up large rocks on the open ground, often on quite level areas. Petroforms in North America were originally made by various Native A ...
,
petroglyphs A petroglyph is an image created by removing part of a rock surface by incising, picking, carving, or abrading, as a form of rock art. Outside North America, scholars often use terms such as "carving", "engraving", or other descriptions ...
, and
pictographs A pictogram, also called a pictogramme, pictograph, or simply picto, and in computer usage an icon, is a graphic symbol that conveys its meaning through its pictorial resemblance to a physical object. Pictographs are often used in writing and gr ...
has been common throughout the Ojibwe traditional territories. Petroforms and
medicine wheels To some indigenous peoples of North America, the medicine wheel is a metaphor for a variety of spiritual concepts. A medicine wheel may also be a stone monument that illustrates this metaphor. Historically, most medicine wheels follow the basic ...
have been used to teach important spiritual concepts, record astronomical events, and to use as a
mnemonic device A mnemonic ( ) device, or memory device, is any learning technique that aids information retention or retrieval (remembering) in the human memory for better understanding. Mnemonics make use of elaborative encoding, retrieval cues, and imagery ...
for certain stories and beliefs. The script is still in use, among traditional people as well as among youth on social media. Some ceremonies use the ''miigis'' shell (
cowry shell Cowrie or cowry () is the common name for a group of small to large sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Cypraeidae, the cowries. The term ''porcelain'' derives from the old Italian term for the cowrie shell (''porcellana'' ...
), which is found naturally in distant coastal areas. Their use of such shells demonstrates there is a vast, longstanding trade network across the continent. The use and trade of
copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...
across the continent has also been proof of a large trading network that took place for thousands of years, as far back as the
Hopewell tradition The Hopewell tradition, also called the Hopewell culture and Hopewellian exchange, describes a network of precontact Native American cultures that flourished in settlements along rivers in the northeastern and midwestern Eastern Woodlands from 1 ...
. Certain types of rock used for spear and arrow heads have also been traded over large distances precontact. During the summer months, the people attend ''jiingotamog'' for the spiritual and ''niimi'idimaa'' for a social gathering (
powwow A powwow (also pow wow or pow-wow) is a gathering with dances held by many Native American and First Nations communities. Powwows today allow Indigenous people to socialize, dance, sing, and honor their cultures. Powwows may be private or pu ...
s) at various reservations in the Anishinaabe-Aki (Anishinaabe Country). Many people still follow the traditional ways of harvesting wild rice, picking berries, hunting, making medicines, and making maple sugar. The Ojibwe bury their dead in
burial mound Burial, also known as interment or inhumation, is a method of final disposition whereby a dead body is placed into the ground, sometimes with objects. This is usually accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing the deceased and objec ...
s. Many erect a ''jiibegamig'' or a "spirit-house" over each mound. An historical burial mound would typically have a wooden marker, inscribed with the deceased's ''
doodem The Anishinaabe, like most Algonquian-speaking groups in North America, base their system of kinship on patrilineal clans or totems. The Ojibwe word for clan () was borrowed into English as totem. The clans, based mainly on animals, were in ...
'' (clan sign). Because of the distinct features of these burials, Ojibwe graves have been often looted by grave robbers. In the United States, many Ojibwe communities safe-guard their burial mounds through the enforcement of the 1990
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), Pub. L. 101-601, 25 U.S.C. 3001 et seq., 104 Stat. 3048, is a United States federal law enacted on November 16, 1990. The Act requires federal agencies and institutions tha ...
. Several Ojibwe bands in the United States cooperate in the
Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission The Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission (GLIFWC) is an intertribal, co-management agency committed to the implementation of off-reservation treaty rights on behalf of its eleven-member Ojibwa tribes. Formed in 1984 and exercising authorit ...
, which manages the treaty hunting and fishing rights in the Lake Superior-
Lake Michigan Lake Michigan is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. It is the second-largest of the Great Lakes by volume () and the third-largest by surface area (), after Lake Superior and Lake Huron. To the east, its basin is conjoined with that o ...
areas. The commission follows the directives of U.S. agencies to run several wilderness areas. Some Minnesota Ojibwe tribal councils cooperate in the
1854 Treaty Authority The 1854 Treaty Authority is an intertribal, co-management agency committed to the implementation of off-reservation treaty rights on behalf of its two-member Ojibwa tribes. Based out of Duluth, Minnesota, 1854 Treaty Authority's policy is set by ...
, which manages their treaty hunting and fishing rights in the
Arrowhead Region The Arrowhead Region is located in the northeastern part of the U.S. state of Minnesota, so called because of its pointed shape. The predominantly rural region encompasses of land area and includes Carlton, Cook, Lake and Saint Louis counties. ...
. In Michigan, the Chippewa-Ottawa Resource Authority manages the hunting, fishing and gathering rights about Sault Ste. Marie, and the resources of the waters of lakes Michigan and Huron. In Canada, the Grand Council of Treaty No. 3 manages the
Treaty 3 ''Treaty 3'' was an agreement entered into on October 3, 1873, by Chief Mikiseesis (Little Eagle) on behalf of the Ojibwe First Nations and Queen Victoria. The treaty involved a vast tract of Ojibwe territory, including large parts of what is ...
hunting and fishing rights related to the area around Lake of the Woods.


Cuisine

There is renewed interest in nutritious eating among the Ojibwe, who have been expanding community gardens in
food deserts Food is any substance consumed by an organism for nutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ing ...
, and have started a mobile kitchen to teach their communities about nutritious food preparation. The traditional Native American diet was seasonally dependent on hunting, fishing and the foraging and farming of produce and grains. The modern diet has substituted some other types of food like
frybread Frybread (also spelled fry bread) is a flat dough bread, fried or deep-fried in oil, shortening, or lard. Made with simple ingredients, generally wheat flour, sugar, salt, and fat, frybread can be eaten alone or with various toppings such a ...
and "Indian tacos" in place of these traditionally prepared meals. The Native Americans loss of connection to their culture is part of the "quest to reconnect to their food traditions" sparking an interest in traditional ingredients like
wild rice Wild rice, also called manoomin, Canada rice, Indian rice, or water oats, is any of four species of grasses that form the genus ''Zizania'', and the grain that can be harvested from them. The grain was historically gathered and eaten in both ...
, that is the official state grain of Minnesota and was part of the pre-colonial diet of the Ojibwe. Other staple foods of the Ojibwe were fish, maple sugar, venison and corn. They grew beans, squash, corn and potatoes and foraged for blueberries, blackberries, choke cherries, raspberries, gooseberries and huckleberries. During the summer game animals like deer, beaver, moose, goose, duck, rabbits and bear were hunted. One traditional method of making granulated sugar known among the Anishinabe was to boil
maple syrup Maple syrup is a syrup made from the sap of maple trees. In cold climates, these trees store starch in their trunks and roots before winter; the starch is then converted to sugar that rises in the sap in late winter and early spring. Maple tree ...
until reduced and pour into a trough, where the rapidly cooling syrup was quickly processed into maple sugar using wooden paddles.


Kinship and clan system

Traditionally, the Ojibwe had a
patrilineal Patrilineality, also known as the male line, the spear side or agnatic kinship, is a common kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives from and is recorded through their father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritanc ...
system, in which children were considered born to the father's
clan A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clans may claim descent from founding member or apical ancestor. Clans, in indigenous societies, tend to be endogamous, meaning ...
. For this reason, children with French or English fathers were considered outside the clan and Ojibwe society unless adopted by an Ojibwe male. They were sometimes referred to as "white" because of their fathers, regardless if their mothers were Ojibwe, as they had no official place in the Ojibwe society. The people would shelter the woman and her children, but they did not have the same place in the culture as children born to Ojibwe fathers. Ojibwe understanding of kinship is complex and includes the immediate family as well as extended family. It is considered a modified
bifurcate merging Iroquois kinship (also known as bifurcate merging) is a kinship system named after the Haudenosaunee people, also known as the ''Iroquois'', whose kinship system was the first one described to use this particular type of system. Identified by Le ...
kinship system In anthropology, kinship is the web of social relationships that form an important part of the lives of all humans in all societies, although its exact meanings even within this discipline are often debated. Anthropologist Robin Fox says that ...
. As with any bifurcate-merging kinship system, siblings generally share the same kinship term with
parallel cousin Parallel is a geometric term of location which may refer to: Computing * Parallel algorithm * Parallel computing * Parallel metaheuristic * Parallel (software), a UNIX utility for running programs in parallel * Parallel Sysplex, a cluster of IBM ...
s because they are all part of the same clan. The modified system allows for younger siblings to share the same kinship term with younger cross-cousins. Complexity wanes further from the person's immediate generation, but some complexity is retained with female relatives. For example, ''ninooshenh'' is "my mother's sister" or "my father's sister-in-law"—i.e., my parallel-aunt, but also "my parent's female cross-cousin". Great-grandparents and older generations, as well as great-grandchildren and younger generations, are collectively called ''aanikoobijigan''. This system of kinship reflects the Anishinaabe philosophy of interconnectedness and balance among all living generations, as well as of all generations of the past and of the future. The Ojibwe people were divided into a number of ''doodemag'' (clans; singular: ''doodem'') named primarily for animals and birds
totem A totem (from oj, ᑑᑌᒼ, italics=no or ''doodem'') is a spirit being, sacred object, or symbol that serves as an emblem of a group of people, such as a family, clan, lineage, or tribe, such as in the Anishinaabe clan system. While ''the wo ...
s (pronounced ''
doodem The Anishinaabe, like most Algonquian-speaking groups in North America, base their system of kinship on patrilineal clans or totems. The Ojibwe word for clan () was borrowed into English as totem. The clans, based mainly on animals, were in ...
''). The word in the Ojibwe language means "my fellow clansman." The five original totems were ''Wawaazisii'' (Bullhead), ''Baswenaazhi'' ("Echo-maker", i.e., Crane), ''Aan'aawenh'' (Pintail Duck), ''Nooke'' ("Tender", i.e., Bear) and ''Moozwaanowe'' ("Little" Moose-tail). The Crane totem was the most vocal among the Ojibwe, and the Bear was the largest – so large, that it was sub-divided into body parts such as the head, the ribs and the feet. Each clan had certain responsibilities among the people. People had to marry a spouse from a different clan. Traditionally, each band had a self-regulating council consisting of leaders of the communities' clans, or ''odoodemaan''. The band was often identified by the principal ''doodem''. In meeting others, the traditional greeting among the Ojibwe people is, "What is your 'doodem'?" ("''Aaniin gidoodem?''" or "''Awanen gidoodem?''") The response allows the parties to establish social conduct by identifying as family, friends or enemies. Today, the greeting has been shortened to "''Aanii'' (pronounced "Ah-nee").


Spiritual beliefs

The Ojibwe have spiritual beliefs that have been passed down by
oral tradition Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication wherein knowledge, art, ideas and cultural material is received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another. Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (1985 ...
under the Midewiwin teachings. These include a
creation story A creation myth (or cosmogonic myth) is a symbolic narrative of how the world began and how people first came to inhabit it., "Creation myths are symbolic stories describing how the universe and its inhabitants came to be. Creation myths develop ...
and a recounting of the origins of ceremonies and rituals. Spiritual beliefs and rituals were very important to the Ojibwe because spirits guided them through life. Birch bark scrolls and petroforms were used to pass along knowledge and information, as well as for ceremonies. Pictographs were also used for ceremonies. The sweatlodge is still used during important ceremonies about the four directions, when oral history is recounted. Teaching lodges are common today to teach the next generations about the language and ancient ways of the past. The traditional ways, ideas, and teachings are preserved and practiced in such living ceremonies. The modern
dreamcatcher In some Native American and First Nations cultures, a dreamcatcher ( oj, asabikeshiinh, the inanimate form of the word for 'spider') is a handmade willow hoop, on which is woven a net or web. It may also be decorated with sacred items such as ...
, adopted by the Pan-Indian Movement and
New Age New Age is a range of spiritual or religious practices and beliefs which rapidly grew in Western society during the early 1970s. Its highly eclectic and unsystematic structure makes a precise definition difficult. Although many scholars conside ...
groups, originated in the Ojibwe "spider web charm", a hoop with woven string or sinew meant to replicate a spider's web, used as a protective charm for infants. According to Ojibwe legend, the protective charms originate with the Spider Woman, known as ''Asibikaashi''; who takes care of the children and the people on the land and as the Ojibwe Nation spread to the corners of North America it became difficult for Asibikaashi to reach all the children, so the mothers and grandmothers wove webs for the children, which had an
apotropaic Apotropaic magic (from Greek "to ward off") or protective magic is a type of magic intended to turn away harm or evil influences, as in deflecting misfortune or averting the evil eye. Apotropaic observances may also be practiced out of superst ...
purpose and were not explicitly connected with dreams.


Funeral practices


Traditional

In Ojibwe tradition, the main task after a death is to bury the body as soon as possible, the very next day or even on the day of death. This was important because it allowed the spirit of the dead to journey to its place of joy and happiness. The land of happiness where the dead reside is called ''Gaagige Minawaanigozigiwining''.Allis, Ellary. “The Spirit of The Dead According To Ojibwe Beliefs.” ''SevenPonds'', Seven Ponds, 8 Dec. 2016, blog.sevenponds.com/cultural-perspectives/the-spirit-of-the-dead-according-to-ojibwe-beliefs.    This was a journey that took four days. If burial preparations could not be completed the day of the death, guests and medicine men were required to stay with the deceased and the family in order to help mourn, while also singing songs and dancing throughout the night. Once preparations were complete, the body would be placed in an inflexed position with their knees towards their chest. Over the course of the four days it takes the spirit to journey to its place of joy, it is customary to have food kept alongside the grave at all times. A fire is set when the sun sets and is kept going throughout the night. The food is to help feed the spirit over the course of the journey, while the smoke from the fire is a directional guide. Once the four day journey is over, a feast is held, which is led by the chief medicine man. At the feast, it is the chief medicine man's duty to give away certain belongings of the deceased. Those who were chosen to receive items from the deceased are required to trade in a new piece of clothing, all of which would be turned into a bundle. The bundle of new cloths and a dish is then given to the closest relative. The recipient of the bundle must then find individuals that he or she believes to be worthy, and pass on one of the new pieces of clothing.


Contemporary

According to Lee Staples, an Ojibwe spiritual leader from the Mille Lacs Indian Reservation, present day practices follow the same spiritual beliefs and remain fairly similar. When an individual dies, a fire is lit in the home of the family, who are also expected to continuously maintain the fire for four days. Over the four days, food is also offered to the spirit. Added to food offerings, tobacco is also offered as it is considered one of four sacred medicines traditionally used by Ojibwe communities. On the last night of food offerings, a feast is also held by the relatives which ends with a final smoke of the offering tobacco or the tobacco being thrown in the fire. Although conventional caskets are mainly used in today's communities, birch bark fire matches are buried along with the body as a tool to help light fires to guide their journey to ''Gaagige Minawaanigozigiwining''.


Ethnobotany

Plants used by the Ojibwe include ''
Agrimonia gryposepala ''Agrimonia gryposepala'' (commonly known as tall hairy agrimony, and ''
Pinus strobus ''Pinus strobus'', commonly called the eastern white pine, northern white pine, white pine, Weymouth pine (British), and soft pine is a large pine native to eastern North America. It occurs from Newfoundland, Canada west through the Great Lake ...
'', the resin of which was used to treat infections and
gangrene Gangrene is a type of tissue death caused by a lack of blood supply. Symptoms may include a change in skin color to red or black, numbness, swelling, pain, skin breakdown, and coolness. The feet and hands are most commonly affected. If the ga ...
. The roots of ''
Symphyotrichum novae-angliae (formerly ''Aster novae-angliae'') is a species of flowering plant in the aster family (Asteraceae) native to central and eastern North America. Commonly known as , , or , it is a perennial, herbaceous plant usually between tall and wi ...
'' are smoked in pipes to attract game. ''
Allium tricoccum ''Allium tricoccum'' (commonly known as ramp, ramps, ramson, wild leek, wood leek, or wild garlic) is a North American species of wild onion or garlic widespread across eastern Canada and the eastern United States. Many of the common English na ...
'' is eaten as part of Ojibwe cuisine. They also use a
decoction Decoction is a method of extraction by boiling herbal or plant material (which may include stems, roots, bark and rhizomes) to dissolve the chemicals of the material. It is the most common preparation method in various herbal-medicine systems. De ...
as a quick-acting
emetic Vomiting (also known as emesis and throwing up) is the involuntary, forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose. Vomiting can be the result of ailments like food poisoning, gastroenteri ...
. An
infusion Infusion is the process of extracting chemical compounds or flavors from plant material in a solvent such as water, oil or alcohol, by allowing the material to remain suspended in the solvent over time (a process often called steeping). An inf ...
of the ''alba'' subspecies of ''
Silene latifolia ''Silene latifolia'' subsp. ''alba'' (formerly ''Melandrium album''), the white campion is a dioecious flowering plant in the family Caryophyllaceae, native to most of Europe, Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is a herbaceous annual, occasio ...
'' is used as physic. The South Ojibwa use a decoction of the root ''
Viola canadensis ''Viola canadensis'' is a flowering plant in the Violaceae family. It is commonly known as Canadian white violet, Canada violet, tall white violet, or white violet. It is widespread across much of Canada and the United States, from Alaska to Newf ...
'' for pains near the bladder. The Ojibwa are documented to use the root of ''
Uvularia grandiflora ''Uvularia grandiflora'', the large-flowered bellwort or merrybells, is a species of flowering plant in the family (biology), family Colchicaceae, native plant, native to eastern and central North America. Description Growing to tall by broad ...
'' for pain in the
solar plexus The celiac plexus, also known as the solar plexus because of its radiating nerve fibers, is a complex network of nerves located in the abdomen, near where the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and renal arteries branch from the abdomin ...
, which may refer to
pleurisy Pleurisy, also known as pleuritis, is inflammation of the membranes that surround the lungs and line the chest cavity (pleurae). This can result in a sharp chest pain while breathing. Occasionally the pain may be a constant dull ache. Other sy ...
. They take a compound decoction of the root of '' Ribes glandulosum'' for back pain and for "female weakness". The Ojibwe eat the corms of ''
Sagittaria cuneata ''Sagittaria cuneata'' is a species of flowering plant in the water plantain family known by the common name arumleaf arrowhead or duck potato. Like some other ''Sagittaria'' species, it may be called wapato. It is native to much of North Americ ...
'' for indigestion, and also as a food, eaten boiled fresh, dried or candied with maple sugar. Muskrat and beavers store them in large caches, which they have learned to recognize and appropriate. They take an infusion of the ''Antennaria howellii'' ssp. ''neodioica'' after childbirth to purge afterbirth and to heal. They use the roots of ''
Solidago rigida ''Solidago rigida'', known by the common names stiff goldenrod and stiff-leaved goldenrod, is a North American plant species in the family Asteraceae. It has a widespread distribution in Canada and the United States, where it is found primarily e ...
'', using a decoction of root as an enema and take an infusion of the root for "stoppage of urine". They use ''
Abies balsamea ''Abies balsamea'' or balsam fir is a North American fir, native to most of eastern and central Canada ( Newfoundland west to central Alberta) and the northeastern United States (Minnesota east to Maine, and south in the Appalachian Mountains to ...
''; melting the gum on warm stones and inhaling the fumes for headache.Densmore, Frances, 1928, Uses of Plants by the Chippewa Indians, SI-BAE Annual Report #44:273–379, page 338 They also use a
decoction Decoction is a method of extraction by boiling herbal or plant material (which may include stems, roots, bark and rhizomes) to dissolve the chemicals of the material. It is the most common preparation method in various herbal-medicine systems. De ...
of the root as an herbal steam for rheumatic joints. They also combine the gum with bear grease and use it as an ointment for hair. They use the needle-like leaves in as part of ceremony involving the sweatbath, and use the gum for colds and inhale the leaf smoke for colds.Smith, Huron H., 1932, Ethnobotany of the Ojibwe Indians, Bulletin of the Public Museum of Milwaukee 4:327–525, page 378 They use the plant as a cough medicine. The gum is used for sores and a compound containing leaves is used as wash. The liquid balsam from bark blisters is used for sore eyes. They boil the resin twice and add it to suet or fat to make a canoe pitch. The bark gum is taken for chest soreness from colds, applied to cuts and sores, and decoction of the bark is used to induce sweating. The bark gum is also taken for
gonorrhea Gonorrhea, colloquially known as the clap, is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by the bacterium '' Neisseria gonorrhoeae''. Infection may involve the genitals, mouth, or rectum. Infected men may experience pain or burning with ...
. A decoction (tea) of powdered, dried ''
Onoclea sensibilis ''Onoclea sensibilis'', the sensitive fern, also known as the bead fern, is a coarse-textured, medium to large-sized deciduous perennial fern. The name comes from its sensitivity to frost, the fronds dying quickly when first touched by it. It is ...
'' root is used to stimulate milk flow in female patients.


Gallery

Image:Eastman Johnson - Ojibwe Wigwam at Grand Portage - ebj - fig 22 pg 41.jpg, Details of ''Ojibwe Wigwam at Grand Portage'' by
Eastman Johnson Jonathan Eastman Johnson (July 29, 1824 – April 5, 1906) was an American painter and co-founder of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, with his name inscribed at its entrance. He was best known for his genre paintings, paintings of ...
, c. 1906 File:Chippewa lodges, Beaver Bay, by Childs, B. F..jpg, Vintage
stereoscopic Stereoscopy (also called stereoscopics, or stereo imaging) is a technique for creating or enhancing the depth perception, illusion of depth in an image by means of stereopsis for binocular vision. The word ''stereoscopy'' derives . Any stere ...
photo entitled "Chippewa lodges, Beaver Bay, by Childs, B. F." File:Upper Mazinaw Lake, Mazinaw Rock.jpg, Pictographs on Mazinaw Rock,
Bon Echo Provincial Park Bon Echo Provincial Park is a provincial park in southeastern Ontario, Canada, approximately north of Cloyne within the township boundaries of both Addington Highlands and North Frontenac. Bon Echo features several lakes, including part of Maz ...
,
Ontario Ontario ( ; ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada.Ontario is located in the geographic eastern half of Canada, but it has historically and politically been considered to be part of Central Canada. Located in Central Ca ...


Bands

In his ''History of the Ojibway People'' (1855), William W. Warren recorded 10 major divisions of the Ojibwe in the United States. He mistakenly omitted the Ojibwe located in Michigan, western Minnesota and westward, and all of Canada. When identified major historical bands located in Michigan and Ontario are added, the count becomes 15: These 15 major divisions developed into the following Ojibwe Bands and First Nations of today. Bands are listed under their respective tribes where possible. See also the listing of Saulteaux communities. *
Aamjiwnaang First Nation The Aamjiwnaang First Nation (formerly known as Chippewas of Sarnia First Nation) is an Anishinaabe (Ojibwe) First Nations Band located on reserve land by the St. Clair River, three miles south of the southern tip of Lake Huron. The reserve is ...
*
Aroland First Nation Aroland First Nation ( 2016 Population 366) is a Ojibwa, Oji-Cree and cree First Nation within the Nishnawbe Aski Nation Territory and a signatory to Treaty 9, located in the Thunder Bay District approximately 20 kilometres west of Nakina. Arol ...
*
Batchewana First Nation of Ojibways The Batchewana First Nation of Ojibways ( oj, Obaajiwan Anishinaabek) is an Ojibway First Nation in northern Ontario. Their traditional lands run along the eastern shore of Lake Superior, from Batchawana Bay to Whitefish Island. They were reserved t ...
*
Bay Mills Indian Community The Bay Mills Indian Community (BMIC) (Ojibwe: Gnoozhekaaning, lit. "Place of the Pike"), is an Indian reservation forming the land base of one of the many federally recognized Sault Ste. Marie bands of Chippewa (aka Ojibwa). The largest section ...
*
Biinjitiwabik Zaaging Anishnabek First Nation The Biinjitiwaabik Zaaging Anishinaabek (formerly known as Rocky Bay First Nation) is an Ojibway First Nation band government in Northwestern Ontario, Canada. Their territory is located on the Rocky Bay 1 reserve in Greenstone, Ontario, bord ...
*
Burt Lake Band of Chippewa and Ottawa Indians The Burt Lake Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians is a historic small State of Michigan-recognized band of Indians who live mostly in Emmet and Cheboygan counties. These two counties are located in the northernmost region of the Lower Peninsula ...
* Caldwell First Nation * Chapleau Ojibway First Nation * Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point * Chippewas of Lake Simcoe and Huron (Historical) ** Beausoleil First Nation ** Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation ** Chippewas of Rama First Nation (formerly known as ''Chippewas of Mnjikaning First Nation'') * Chippewas of Nawash Unceded First Nation * Chippewa of the Thames First Nation * Chippewas of Saugeen Ojibway Territory (Historical) ** Chippewas of Nawash Unceded First Nation ** Saugeen First Nation * Chippewa Cree Tribe of Rocky Boys Indian Reservation * Curve Lake First Nation * Cutler First Nation * Dokis 9, Ontario, Dokis First Nation * Eabametoong First Nation * First Nation of Ojibwe California * Fort William First Nation * Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians * Garden River First Nation * Henvey Inlet First Nation * Asubpeeschoseewagong, Grassy Narrows First Nation (Asabiinyashkosiwagong Nitam-Anishinaabeg) * Islands in the Trent Waters * Keeseekoowenin Ojibway First Nation (also known as ''Riding Mountain Band'') * Sandy Lake First Nation, Koocheching First Nation * Lac des Mille Lacs First Nation * Lac La Croix First Nation * Lac Seul First Nation * Lake Nipigon Ojibway First Nation * Lake Superior Chippewa Tribe ** Bad River Chippewa Band ** Lac Vieux Desert Band of Lake Superior Chippewa ** L'Anse Indian Reservation, Keweenaw Bay Indian Community *** L'Anse Band of Chippewa Indians *** Ontonagon Band of Chippewa Indians ** Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians *** Bois Brule River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa *** Chippewa River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa *** Lac Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians *** Removable St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin ** Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa ** Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa ** Sokaogon Chippewa Community ** St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin * Little Shell Tribe of Chippewa Indians of Montana * Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians * Mackinac Bands of Chippewa and Ottawa Indians * Magnetawan First Nation * Minnesota Chippewa Tribe ** Bois Forte Band of Chippewa *** Bois Forte Band of Chippewa *** Lake Vermilion Band of Lake Superior Chippewa *** Little Forks Band of Rainy River Saulteaux ** Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa ** Grand Portage Band of Chippewa ** Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe *** Cass Lake Band of Chippewa *** Lake Winnibigoshish Band of Chippewa *** Leech Lake Band of Pillagers *** Removable Lake Superior Bands of Chippewa of the Chippewa Reservation *** White Oak Point Band of Mississippi Chippewa **** Pokegama Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa **** Removable Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa ** Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe *** Mille Lacs Indians *** Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa *** Rice Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa *** St. Croix Band of Chippewa Indians of Minnesota **** Kettle River Band of Chippewa Indians **** Snake and Knife Rivers Band of Chippewa Indians ** White Earth Band of Chippewa *** Gull Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa *** Otter Tail Band of Pillagers *** Rabbit Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa *** Removable Mille Lacs Indians *** Rice Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa * Mississaugi First Nation * North Caribou Lake First Nation * Ojibway Nation of Saugeen First Nation * Ojibways of the Pic River First Nation * Osnaburg House Band of Ojibway and Cree (Historical) ** Cat Lake First Nation ** Mishkeegogamang First Nation (formerly known as ''New Osnaburgh First Nation'') ** Slate Falls First Nation * Pembina Band of Chippewa Indians (Historical) * Pikangikum First Nation * Poplar Hill First Nation * Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians ** Lac des Bois Band of Chippewa Indians * Rolling River First Nation * Sagamok Anishnawbek First Nation * Saginaw Chippewa Tribal Council * Sault Tribe of Chippewa Indians *
Saulteaux The Saulteaux (pronounced , or in imitation of the French pronunciation , also written Salteaux, Saulteau and other variants), otherwise known as the Plains Ojibwe, are a First Nations band government in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Al ...
First Nation * Nobel, Ontario, Shawanaga First Nation * Southeast Tribal Council ** Berens River First Nation ** Bloodvein First Nation ** Brokenhead First Nation ** Buffalo Point First Nation (Saulteaux) ** Hollow Water First Nation ** Black River First Nation ** Little Grand Rapids First Nation ** Pauingassi First Nation (Saulteaux) ** Poplar River First Nation * Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians * Wabaseemoong Independent Nation * Ear Falls, Wabauskang First Nation * Wabun Tribal Council ** Beaverhouse First Nation ** Brunswick House First Nation ** Chapleau Ojibwe First Nation ** Matachewan First Nation ** Mattagami First Nation ** Wahgoshig First Nation * Wabigoon Lake Ojibway Nation * Wahnapitae First Nation * Walpole Island Indian Reserve No. 46, Walpole Island First Nation * Kenora, Washagamis Bay First Nation * Naotkamegwanning First Nation, Whitefish Bay First Nation * Atikameksheng Anishnawbek First Nation, Whitefish Lake First Nation * Rainbow Country, Whitefish River First Nation * Whitesand First Nation * Thunder Bay, Whitewater Lake First Nation * Wikwemikong Unceded First Nation


Notable historic Ojibwe people

Ojibwe people from the 20th and 21st centuries should be listed under their specific tribes. * Hanging Cloud, Ah-shah-way-gee-she-go-qua (Aazhawigiizhigokwe, Hanging Cloud), 19th c. Lac Courte Oreilles Ojibwe woman warrior * Francis Assikinack (1824–1863), historian from
Manitoulin Island Manitoulin Island is an island in Lake Huron, located within the borders of the Canadian province of Ontario, in the bioregion known as Laurentia. With an area of , it is the largest lake island in the world, large enough that it has over 100 ...
* Stephen Bonga, Ojibwe/African-American fur trader and interpreter"Portrait of Stephen Bonga"
Wisconsin Historical Images, accessed 23 January 2014
* George Bonga (1802–1880), Ojibwe/African-American fur trader and interpreter * Jeanne L'Strange Cappel (1873–1949), writer, teacher and clubwoman * George Copway (1818–1869), missionary and writer * Fr. Philip B. Gordon (1885–1948), Roman Catholic priest and activist from Gordon, Douglas County, Wisconsin, Gordon, Wisconsin * Margaret Bonga Fahlstrom (c.1797–1880), Ojibwe-African American woman in the early Methodist Episcopal Church in Minnesota * Hole in the Day (1825-1868), Chief of the Mississippi River Band of Chippewa Indians, Mississippi Band of the
Minnesota Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over to ...
Ojibwe * Peter Jones (missionary), Peter Jones (1802–1856), Mississaugas, Mississauga missionary and writer * Kechewaishke (Gichi-Weshkiinh, Buffalo) (ca. 1759–1855), chief * Edmonia Lewis (ca. 1844–1907), Mississaugas, Mississauga Ojibwe/African-American sculptor * Maungwudaus, George Henry (1811–1888), performer, interpreter, mission worker, and herbalist * Medweganoonind, 19th-century Red Lake Ojibwe chief * Ozaawindib (Ozaawindib, Yellow Head), early 19th c. nonbinary warrior, guide * Keewaydinoquay Peschel (1919–1999), teacher, ethnobotanist * Chief Rocky Boy (fl. late 19th c.), chief * Jane Johnston Schoolcraft (1800–1842), author, wife of Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, born in Sault Ste. Marie * John Smith (Native American), John Smith, Gaa-binagwiiyaas (ca. 1824–1922, chief, from Cass Lake, Minnesota * Alfred Michael "Chief" Venne (1879–1971), athletic manager and coach from Leroy, North Dakota * Wabanquot (Chippewa chief), Waabaanakwad (White Cloud) (ca. 1830-1898), Gull Lake chief * William Whipple Warren (1825–1853), first historical writer of the Ojibwe people, territorial legislator * Zheewegonab (fl. 1780–1805), band leader among the northern Ojibwe * Cara Gee (1983-), Canadian actress * Trixie Mattel (1989-), American drag queen


Ojibwe treaties

* Chippewa Ottawa Resource Authority—1836CT fisheries * Grand Council of Treaty 3—Treaty 3 * Grand Council of Treaty 8—Treaty 8 *
Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission The Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission (GLIFWC) is an intertribal, co-management agency committed to the implementation of off-reservation treaty rights on behalf of its eleven-member Ojibwa tribes. Formed in 1984 and exercising authorit ...
—1837CT, 1836CT, 1842CT and 1854CT * Nishnawbe Aski Nation—Treaty 5 and Treaty 9 * Red Lake Band of Chippewa—1886CT and 1889CT * Union of Ontario Indians—RS, RH1, RH2, misc. pre-confederation treaties ; Treaties with France * Great Peace of Montreal, La Grande Paix de Montréal (1701) ; Treaties with Great Britain and the United Kingdom * Treaty of Fort Niagara (1764) * Treaty of Fort Niagara (1781) * Indian Officers' Land Treaty (1783) * The Crawford Purchases (1783) * Between the Lakes Purchase (1784) * Treaty of Peace with Sioux, Chippewa and Winnebago (1787) * Toronto Purchase (1787) ** Indenture to the Toronto Purchase (1805) * The McKee Purchase (1790) * Between the Lakes Purchase (1792) * Chenail Ecarte (Sombra Township) Purchase (1796) * London Township Purchase (1796) * Land for Joseph Brant (1797) * Penetanguishene Bay Purchase (1798) * St. Joseph Island (1798) * Head-of-the-Lake Purchase (1806) * Lake Simcoe-Lake Huron Purchase (1815) * Lake Simcoe-Nottawasaga Purchase (1818) * Ajetance Purchase (1818) * Rice Lake Purchase (1818) * The Rideau Purchase (1819) * Long Woods Purchase (1822) * Huron Tract Purchase (1827) * Saugeen Tract Agreement (1836) * Manitoulin Agreement (1836) * The Robinson Treaties ** Robinson Superior Treaty, Ojibewa Indians of Lake Superior (1850) ** Robinson Huron Treaty, Ojibewa Indians of Lake Huron (1850) * Manitoulin Island Treaty (1862) ; Treaties with Canada * Treaty 1, Treaty No. 1 (1871)—Stone Fort Treaty * Treaty 2, Treaty No. 2 (1871) * Treaty 3, Treaty No. 3 (1873)—Northwest Angle Treaty * Treaty 4, Treaty No. 4 (1874)—Qu'Appelle Treaty * Treaty 5, Treaty No. 5 (1875) * Treaty 6, Treaty No. 6 (1876) * Treaty 8, Treaty No. 8 (1899) * Treaty 9, Treaty No. 9 (1905–1906)—James Bay Treaty * Treaty No. 5, Adhesions (1908–1910) * The Williams Treaties (1923) ** Williams Treaty#Chippewa, The Chippewa Indians ** Williams Treaty#Mississauga, The Mississauga Indians * Treaty No. 9, Adhesions (1929–1930) ; Treaties with the United States * Treaty of Fort McIntosh (1785) * Treaty of Fort Harmar (1789) * Treaty of Greenville (1795) * Fort Industry (1805) *
Treaty of Detroit The Treaty of Detroit was a treaty between the United States and the Ottawa, Chippewa, Wyandot and Potawatomi Native American nations. The treaty was signed in Detroit, Michigan on November 17, 1807, with William Hull, governor of the Michi ...
(1807) * Treaty of Brownstown (1808) * Treaty of Springwells (1815) * Treaty of St. Louis (1816)—Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi * Treaty of Miami Rapids (1817) * Treaty of St. Mary's (1818) * Treaty of Saginaw (1819) * Treaty of Saúlt Ste. Marie (1820) * Treaty of L'Arbre Croche and Michilimackinac (1820) * 1821 Treaty of Chicago, Treaty of Chicago (1821) * First Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1825) * Treaty of Fond du Lac (1826) * Treaty of Butte des Morts (1827) * Treaty of Green Bay (1828) * Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1829) * 1833 Treaty of Chicago, Treaty of Chicago (1833) * Treaty of Washington (1836)—Ottawa & Chippewa * Treaty of Washington (1836)—Swan Creek & Black River Bands *
Treaty of Detroit The Treaty of Detroit was a treaty between the United States and the Ottawa, Chippewa, Wyandot and Potawatomi Native American nations. The treaty was signed in Detroit, Michigan on November 17, 1807, with William Hull, governor of the Michi ...
(1837) * Treaty of St. Peters (1837)—White Pine Treaty * Treaty of Flint River (1837) * Saganaw Treaties ** Treaty of Saganaw (1838) ** Treaty of Saganaw Supplemental, Supplemental Treaty (1839) * Treaty of La Pointe#1842 Treaty of La Pointe, Treaty of La Pointe (1842)—Copper Treaty ** Isle Royale Agreement (1844) * Treaty of Potawatomi Creek (1846) * Treaty of Fond du Lac (1847) * Treaty of Leech Lake (1847) * Treaty of La Pointe#1854 Treaty of La Pointe, Treaty of La Pointe (1854) * Treaty of Washington (1855) * Treaty of Detroit (1855)—Ottawa & Chippewa * Treaty of Detroit (1855)—Sault Ste. Marie Band * Treaty of Detroit (1855)—Swan Creek & Black River Bands * Treaty of Sac and Fox Agency (1859) * Treaty of Washington (1863) * Treaty of Old Crossing (1863) * Treaty of Old Crossing (1864) * Treaty of Washington (1864) * Treaty of Isabella Reservation (1864) * Treaty of Washington (1866) * Treaty of Washington (1867)


Gallery

File:A-na-cam-e-gish-ca.jpg, A-na-cam-e-gish-ca (''Aanakamigishkaang''/"[Traces of] Foot Prints [upon the Ground]"), Ojibwe chief, from ''History of the Indian Tribes of North America'' File:Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay.jpg, Bust of Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay (''Eshkibagikoonzhe'' or "Flat Mouth"), a Leech Lake Ojibwe chief File:Nanongabe.jpg, Chief Beautifying Bird (''Nenaa'angebi''), by Benjamin Armstrong, 1891 File:Be sheekee.jpg, Bust of Beshekee, war chief, modeled 1855, carved 1856 File:Caa-tou-see.jpg, ''Caa-tou-see'', an Ojibwe, from ''History of the Indian Tribes of North America'' File:Hangingcloud.jpg, Hanging Cloud, a female Ojibwe warrior File:Jack-O-Pa.jpg, Jack-O-Pa (''Zhaagobe''/"Six"), a St. Croix Chippewa Indians, St. Croix Ojibwe chief, from ''History of the Indian Tribes of North America'' File:Eastman Johnson - Kay be sen day way We Win - ejb - fig 101 - pg 225.jpg, ''Kay be sen day way We Win'', by
Eastman Johnson Jonathan Eastman Johnson (July 29, 1824 – April 5, 1906) was an American painter and co-founder of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, with his name inscribed at its entrance. He was best known for his genre paintings, paintings of ...
, 1857 File:George Catlin 003.jpg, Kei-a-gis-gis, a Plains Ojibwe woman, painted by George Catlin File:Leech Lake Chippewa delegation to Washington 1899.png, Leech Lake Ojibwe delegation to Washington, 1899 File:1940 govt photo minnesota farming scene chippewa baby teething on magazine indians at work.jpg, Chippewa baby teething on "Indians at Work" magazine while strapped to a cradleboard at a rice lake in 1940. File:Ojibwa Chief.gif, Ne-bah-quah-om, Ojibwe chief File:One-Called-From-A-Distance Chippewa.jpg, "One Called From A Distance" (''Midwewinind'') of the White Earth Band of Chippewa, White Earth Band, 1894. File:PeeCheKir.jpg, Pee-Che-Kir, Ojibwe chief, painted by Thomas Loraine McKenney, 1843 File:Rocky Boy Chippewa chief.jpg, Ojibwe chief Rocky Boy (Chippewa leader), Rocky Boy File:Squawandchild.jpg, Ojibwe woman and child, from ''History of the Indian Tribes of North America'' File:Tshusick.jpg, ''Tshusick'', an Ojibwe woman, from ''History of the Indian Tribes of North America'' File:Photograph of Chief Medicine Man of Chippewa Indians Axel Pasey with His Family - NARA - 2128360.jpg, Chief medicine man Axel Pasey and family at Grand Portage Minnesota. File:Historic petition of Ojibwe Chiefs 1849 Seth Eastman State Historical Society of Wisconsin.png, Historic 1849 petition of Ojibwe chiefs File:Wells american indian picture writing.png, Wells American Indian picture writing File:Edmonia Lewis by Henry Rocher.jpg, Wildfire, English name Edmonia Lewis


See also

* Amikwa people *
First Nations First Nations or first peoples may refer to: * Indigenous peoples, for ethnic groups who are the earliest known inhabitants of an area. Indigenous groups *First Nations is commonly used to describe some Indigenous groups including: **First Natio ...
* Timeline of First Nations history * History of Native Americans in the United States * Native Americans in the United States


References


Notes


Bibliography

* * H. Hickerson, ''The Chippewa and Their Neighbors'' (1970) * Ruth Landes, R. Landes, ''Ojibwa Sociology'' (1937, repr. 1969) * R. Landes, ''Ojibwa Woman'' (1938, repr. 1971) * * F. Symington, ''The Canadian Indian'' (1969)


Further reading


Aaniin Ekidong: Ojibwe Vocabulary Project. St. Paul: Minnesota Humanities Center, 2009
* * Bento-Banai, Edward (2004). Creation- From the Ojibwa. The Mishomis Book. * Child, Brenda J. (2014). ''My Grandfather's Knocking Sticks: Ojibwe Family Life and Labor on the Reservation.'' St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press. * Danziger, E.J., Jr. (1978). ''The Chippewa of Lake Superior''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. * Denial, Catherine J. (2013). ''Making Marriage: Husbands, Wives, and the American State in Dakota and Ojibwe Country.'' St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press. * Densmore, F. (1979). ''Chippewa customs''. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press. (Published originally 1929) * Grim, J.A. (1983). ''The shaman: Patterns of religious healing among the Ojibway Indians''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. * Gross, L.W. (2002). ''The comic vision of Anishinaabe culture and religion''. American Indian Quarterly, 26, 436–459. * Howse, Joseph. ''A Grammar of the Cree Language; With which is combined an analysis of the Chippeway dialect''. London: J.G.F. & J. Rivington, 1844. * Johnston, B. (1976). ''Ojibway heritage''. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. * Long, J. ''Voyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter and Trader Describing the Manners and Customs of the North American Indians, with an Account of the Posts Situated on the River Saint Laurence, Lake Ontario, & C., to Which Is Added a Vocabulary of the Chippeway Language ... a List of Words in the Iroquois, Mehegan, Shawanee, and Esquimeaux Tongues, and a Table, Shewing the Analogy between the Algonkin and the Chippeway Languages''. London: Robson, 1791. * Nichols, J.D., & Nyholm, E. (1995). ''A concise dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. * Treuer, Anton
Everything You Wanted to Know About Indians But Were Afraid to Ask
St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2012. * Treuer, Anton.
The Assassination of Hole in the Day
'. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2011. * Treuer, Anton. Ojibwe in Minnesota. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 2010
Ojibwe in Minnesota. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2010.

Treuer, Anton. Living Our Language: Ojibwe Tales & Oral Histories. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2001.
* Vizenor, G. (1972). ''The everlasting sky: New voices from the people named the Chippewa''. New York: Crowell-Collier Press. * Vizenor, G. (1981). ''Summer in the spring: Ojibwe lyric poems and tribal stories''. Minneapolis: The Nodin Press. * Vizenor, G. (1984). ''The people named the Chippewa: Narrative histories''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. * Warren, William W. (1851). ''History of the Ojibway People.'' * White, Richard (1991). ''The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815'' (Studies in North American Indian History) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England. * White, Richard (July 31, 2000). Chippewas of the Sault. The Sault Tribe News. * Wub-e-ke-niew. (1995). ''We have the right to exist: A translation of aboriginal indigenous thought''. New York: Black Thistle Press.


External links



recorded by Frances Desmore
Ojibwe People's Dictionary

''Ojibwe Waasa-Inaabidaa''
Public Broadcasting Service, PBS documentary featuring the history and culture of the Anishinaabe-Ojibwe people of the Great Lakes (United States–focused). *
Ojibwe migratory map
from Ojibwe Waasa-Inaabidaa
Batchewana First Nation of Ojibways

Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa

Mississaugi First Nation

Southeast Tribal Council

Wabun Tribal Council

''Ojibwe Stories: Gaganoonididaa''
from the Public Radio Exchange {{Authority control Ojibwe, Algonquian ethnonyms Algonquian peoples Anishinaabe groups Anishinaabe lands First Nations in Alberta First Nations in Manitoba First Nations in Ontario First Nations in Quebec First Nations in Saskatchewan Great Lakes tribes Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands Native American tribes in Michigan Native American tribes in Minnesota Native American tribes in Montana Native American tribes in North Dakota Native American tribes in Wisconsin Native American tribes Plains tribes Upper Peninsula of Michigan